Editor’s note: Annemor Sundbø wrote a book about spelsau sheep–and so much more–in 2015, Reflections on the Ancient Nordic Sheep: Mythology & Magic, Folk Beliefs & Traditions [Spelsau og Samspill, Glansfull ull og lodne skjebnetråder: Myter og Refleksjoner]. This book is dense with Annemor’s deep knowledge of how the ancient sheep breed has affected Norway’s heritage. She weaves in mythology, religion, folk belief and cultural references. This is a translation of Chapter 30–only 11 of the 400 pages of this masterwork (available only in Norwegian). It underscores the importance of the indigenous spelsau sheep to art weaving and tapestry in Norway. 

Our oldest pictorial textiles

To study the yarn in our oldest textile artifacts is like greeting our spinning foremothers. The threads not only reveal how they wove and how they created stylized figures within weaving techniques. The yarn also shows they had materials to create yarn of a quality to last for over a thousand years. The threads and the patterns communicate and give us insight into customary practices of the time, use of materials, and the levels of spinning and weaving skills. Through these threads we can feel the care they exercised and their joy in creation. But the stories they tell are also often mysterious. The images tell a story, but unexplained figures and geometric forms might demonstrate that women also had a belief in the power of symbols. Were they requests to the gods with thoughts of eternal life, things we don’t understand here on earth a thousand years later?

Snartemo, Evebø, Oseberg and Överhogdal

Textile finds from the time before the graves at Langeid revealed textiles made with superfine yarn in complex techniques. Advanced figured bands were found at Snartemo and Evebø, most likely tablet-woven. They could be from the migratory period in the 500s. The Oseberg textiles are from the early Viking era, around 830. 

In 1910 textiles with images were found in a hovel at Överhogdal in Härjedalen (Sweden). They were a combination of pieces in various weaving techniques. Some were in double weave, and others in soumack, a twining technique in which the figures were woven in lustrous guard-hair yarn on a linen base. The remnants were called the Överhogdal Tapestries, even though it is unclear whether they were woven in that area, or whether they even originated in Norway or Sweden—but they were created more than 1200 years ago.

 Baldishol

In 1886 an old church from the 1700s on the Baldishol farm at Nes in Hedmark was torn down. Louis Kildal from the neighboring Hoel farm discovered and old rag, covered in dirt and clay. It came to be one of Norway’s most important national treasures—one that was not only attention-grabbing in Norwegian textile art, but one that gained international attention. It appeared to be a tapestry woven in the 1100s. Its quality was high despite its unkind fate and great age. The tapestry could have been part of a series depicting all the months of the year, but only April and May have been preserved. 

Discovery of the Baldishol Tapestry not only sparked renewed interest in tapestry; the yarn also came into focus. After it was discovered the wool was from the old Norwegian spelsau race of sheep, there was interest in the fleece that made it possible for decorative textiles to retain  their strength of color and luster for over a thousand years. 

A flourishing in the art of weaving

Our textile inheritance reflects our pride and identity. Folk costumes and woven coverlets were an important weapon in the struggle for independence from Denmark and Sweden. We needed to demonstrate a unique Norwegian cultural tradition. In the period from 1814 and up to the separation from Sweden in 1905, historical folk art was prominent in music, visual art, and handwork. “World stars” Ole Bull and Adolph Tidemand, together with other National Romantic artists, were eye-openers for the exotic and for the colorful in our country in the mid-1800s. The National Romantic blossomed, for example, with the painting Bridal Procession in Hardanger. Ole Bull and Edvard Grieg based many new musical works on folk songs. 

Discoveries of the Baldishol Tapestry and the textile finds from the Oseberg Viking ship were two big events for textile arts that fit right into the spirit of the times. Newspaper accounts enthusiastically described how contemporary weaving could follow a thread back to tapestry treasures from Viking times. 

A burst of new life in Norwegian Weaving

Many eyes were opened because of these textile discoveries, and buyers and collectors opened their wallets as well. They saw value in our old textile treasures, which were falling out of fashion in rural areas. 

The discoveries were also a welcome for handcraft businesses in that the weavings were praised and valued once again, and they could be used as a basis for art weaving. The weaving technique in the Baldishol Tapestry was seen as the most authentic in our folk art, in style, technique, and materials. Tapestries from Vågå and Gudbrandsdal were originally used to illustrate religious stories, but could now be used in a political sense and help build up a national feeling. Handcraft businesses and a number of private schools started up to teach spinning and weaving, and several tapestry studios were established. 

Historical Tapestries in New Editions

Jens Thiis was the first director of the National Museum [Nasjonalgalleriet]. Before that he was the director of the National Museum of Arts and Design [Nordenfjeldske kunstindustrimuseum] in Trondheim, where he set up a weaving school in 1898. It ran for ten years. 

At first it was important to strictly adhere to the old style from the time of the sagas in the new tapestries, with no deviation in technique. The images should be composed of flat planes next to one another, a sort of two-dimensional cartoon form. The lines had to follow certain rules with hakking (joins) and trapping (steps), which also affected the composition. The historical colors should also be copied. But the yarn in soft wool and the new colors stood out as heathery and muddy, compared to the clear colors and lustrous finish of the historical yarn. 

Miss Augustas dyeing method

In 1894 Frida (Pettersen) Hansen began to work with plant-based dyeing using Augusta Chirstensen’s dye method. In this method unspun wool was dyed in three or four main colors and carded together afterwards. This created the possibility of blending colors like paint on a palette. Each thread had its proper place in the image, and the wool came from the modern sheep varieties. This dyeing and spinning method was also used for Fair Isle knitting yarn on the Shetland Islands and for weaving yarn for traditional Scottish tweed. 

Frida Hansen’s studio was called the Norwegian Coverlet and Tapestry Weaving Studio [Norsk Aaklæde og Billedvæveri], when she took part in the handcraft exhibition in Bergen in 1898. Frida Hansen was trained in painting, but became interested in traditional weaving. At the first Norwegian handcraft exhibition at Tivoli in Kristiania (now Oslo) in 1890 she showed her first tapestry, “Birkebeinerne,” after a lithograph by the artist Knud Bergslien. The catalog stated that, “all the yarn was hand spun by the artist herself.” 

Frida moved to Oslo and in 1892 she opened a teaching studio for students from the city and countryside. In 1897 the studio was called The Norwegian Tapestry Studio [Det Norsk Billedvæveri] and moved to Stortorvet, a square in the center of Oslo. 

The Handcraft Association’s Dye Studio

The Norwegian Handcraft Association Plant Dye Studio [Den Norsk Husflidforenings Plantefargeri] began in 1894 and existed up to World War II, when it closed down because they lacked fuel to heat the dye pots. The Handcraft Association sold patterns for decorative weavings, coverlets and tapestries so weavers could continue the traditional style. All the yarn specified in the patterns was machine-spun. Factories only spun yarn from the newer sheep varieties during this first wave of art weaving at the beginning of the 1900s. 

Fine artists create tapestry 

Given the high status of tapestry, several male artists began to design new tapestry images, with a grounding in the old, distinctive saga-style. Painters, with Gerhard Munthe in the forefront, began to create cartoons for tapestry. Munthe experimented with the traditional flat style and pulled motifs from Norwegian sagas, Scandinavian mythology, and Norwegian folk tales. The tapestries were intended to underscore  and emphasize our national character and cultural heritage. As an artist, Munthe said that when he moved into a world of patterns and ornament he became interested in colors and forms that represented the Norwegian identity.

To Drown in wool

Munthe gained greater fame for his tapestry cartoons than for his paintings. He never wove himself, but drew for the Studio for Art Weaving [Atelier for Kunstveving] at the National Museum for Arts and Crafts in Trondheim from 1897 to 1909.  At the Worlds Fair in Paris in 1900 Munthe received the gold medal for one of the tapestries he designed. He was disappointed. He was apparently quite frustrated because he wanted to be recognized for his painting and not for his dabbling in tapestry, as he put it. Reportedly Munthe was happy for the praise and fame, but he said somewhat condescendingly that “they are drowning my art in wool.” He said that his true art was overlooked and falsified into “soft wool weavings.” Munthe sighed, “Oh, these weaving women.” But as that era’s leading male artist he nonetheless led a new epoch in Norwegian textile art.

Munthe’s tapestries were not woven with spælsau’s lustrous wool.  He utilized chemically dyed machine-spun yarn from the newly introduced sheep with soft wool.  The wool was dyed before spinning and then carded and blended in greyed tones, imparting no luster as in the older tapestries. 

Guard-hair yarn appears, a gain for textile art

When the yarn from spelsau sheep was rediscovered, it received a great deal of attention with the headline, “Yarn that Amazes.” Erling Engelstad wrote in the magazine Our Selves and Our Homes [Vi selv og våre hjem], “The yarn for tapestry is hand spun and dyed with plant dyes, first-rate work led by Sunniva Lønning. The yarn she created has luster and clear, rich colors of high artistic effect, and it is amazing.” 

Crucial educators, real-life Valkyries

Sunniva Lønning taught spinning and dyeing, and the teaching of spinning and dyeing, at the National Women’s Arts and Design School [Statens kvinnelige industriskole] from 1940-1977, but she did not leave many publications behind. In a book for the 75th anniversary of the school she wrote, “yarn is not merely yarn,” and further, “When the textile industry grew, hand-spinning decreased. It was no longer necessary for everyone to know how to spin. Due to the materials and work methods, the textile industry could produce softer and smoother yarns than those spun at home. Factory made products became so popular that yarn that appeared handmade was seen as less beautiful.”

“That looks store-bought,” many say when something handmade looks extra perfect. Even today many comment that a well-executed handmade item looks like it could be “machine-made.” 

Women’s mastery of spinning techniques

The most important aspect of hand-spinning is knowledge of the material, according to Sunniva Lønning, but she added that home craft, including handcraft for sale, must be allowed to use machine-spun yarn, because wool was such an important product for Norwegian agriculture. At school it was important to choose the best materials for the right purpose. Along with  Sunniva Lønning, weaving instructors Signe Haugstoga and Ragnhild Trætteberg worked systematically with the Wool Improvement Committee [Ullforedlingsnemnda] and the Norwegian Handcraft Association’s Wool Committee. [Husflidsforening ullutvalg]. Their results were presented in an exhibition in 1948, Spelsau Wool in Art and Clothing [Spælsau-ull i kunst og klær]. 

In 1956 a new exhibition highlighted research the school had undertaken in collaboration with Lily and Per Hoeslfeldt Lund, “Yarn is not just Yarn.” Also in 1956 a new course in wool sorting was begun by Norway’s Livestock Association [Norges Kjøtt-og-Fleskesentral], which owned the Røros Tweed mill. Results from the course were presented during Agricultural Week in 1959, and called Sorting Yields Quality [Sortering gir kvalitet].

Signe Haugstoga was a weaving instructor at the National Women’s Arts and Design School from 1936 to 1942. She wrote in the school’s anniversary book (1875-1950): “…when we have come as far as to have machine-spun yarn of this type on the market, we can perhaps hope for a higher level of quality in handcraft for sale, something that is needed, especially when it concerns decorative weaving. In line with the times it is evident that machine-spinning is needed when it concerns large-scale production. It is also true that if you wish to create an exquisite textile the hand spinner must have full mastery over the material, which is its basis.”

A Golden Time for Lustrous Weaving 

The exhibits emphasized spelsau yarn quality and intended uses. “Norsk ull” [Norwegian wool], which meant wool from the old Norwegian sheep breed, stood out as a modern material for artistic expression. Both educators and practicing artists were among the advocates for spelsau wool. Signe Haugstoga explained more about traditional Norwegian weaving: 

“Much of what we have preserved from historical times, seen artistically, decoratively, and from a quality standpoint, ranks quite highly. The assurance these textiles display in composition, color and quality will always stand as a good example for anyone who works in this area. 

The work that lies behind the textiles in this display was in the past primarily made in the home. The weaver had control of the work from the carefully sorting of linen and wool for various uses, to the completed items… A huge transformation in this area followed the advent of machine-spun yarn… It resulted in a colossal time-savings in the home, something that was much appreciated when it came to spinning yarn for clothing and other utilitarian items… Machine-spinning also had unfortunate effects. It goes without saying that machine-spun yarn must be uniform. Factories were only interested in producing things with their own products, and not in fine sorting of wool or wool varieties. The textile industry was mainly interested in uniform soft wool, whether that meant  imported wool or Norwegian wool production. And of course the spinning mills supplied a great deal of yarn for handcraft.”

Soft wool and Synthetic Dyeing

Decorative weaving suffered. Soft/wooly yarn varieties were used where it was ill-suited. Soft yarn varieties and synthetic dyes, called pakkefarging [packet-dyeing, because the dye came in packets], changed the character of art weaving and lowered its quality. 

In 1936 the Norwegian Museum of Arts and Crafts [Kunstindustrimuseum] began a series of large exhibitions, first with Norwegian Weaving 1550-1850 in 1936, followed by Norwegian Ryas in 1940. And then came a tapestry exhibit in 1946 that showed the quality of yarn used in the past. 

The weaving teacher Signe Haugstoga emphasized that knitting yarn was not appropriate for woven table runners, and that handweaving is so time-consuming that only the best materials are good enough! 

From Foremothers to modern gods and heroines

Who were the foremothers and forefathers of tapestry and textile arts in Norway? Work with wool and weaving have been traditionally women’s work as long as weaving has had a spiritual message and magical powers. When times changed and the visual arts received the new task of building pride—and with an ideology that nationalistic feelings could be a political tool, then male artists stepped in. They were masters of contemporary artistic expression and could speak publicly on politics. That was before women gained the right to vote in Norway in 1913. 

Cooperation, fertilization and renewal

A renaissance in Norwegian art that would have implications for the Norwegian spelsau began with large wall decorations, so-called fresco paintings. This fresco period led to monumental pieces. An artistic milieu grew under the Danish professor from the National Art Academy [Statens Kunstakademi], Georg Jakobsen. He taught a whole generation of painters a sort of geometric composition that had similarities to tapestry, one that was well-suited to cartoons, drawings or sketches used for weaving. 

This renewal built on several factors. First, there were male artists who were willing to create cartoons that were specifically designed for tapestry. Second, there were weavers with rock-solid knowledge and weaving skills who were willing to weave from the cartoons. Øystein Parmann opened his book, Norwegian Tapestry, A Studio and an Epoch [Norsk Billedvev, Et atelier og en epoke] by declaring it is unimportant to know which came first of this chicken and egg. Foremost, both the rooster and the chicken must be present for fertilization. 

The Golden egg

The company Norwegian Tapestry [A/S Norsk Billedvev] is a typical example of what can happen when certain individuals meet and have similar interests. One driving force was Thor B. Kielland, director of the Norwegian Museum of Arts and Crafts. He was then working on his book, Norwegian Tapestry 1550-1800 [Norsk Billedvev 1550-1800]. The other important actors were the artists Kåre Mikkelsen Jonsborg and Håkon Stenstadvold. But most essential, in my opinion, were the hens that produced the fertilized egg—the golden egg. With Else Halling’s knowledge of weaving and Sunniva Lønning’s spinning wisdom, with insight and strength, tapestry blossomed into a golden age. 

The spirit of contemporary times and sheep from an ancient time

Epochs grow from impulses and inspiration that can be called the spirit of the time. The National Romantic period focused on promoting a unique and magnificent Norwegian culture that would bring world renown. Art could be used to bring attention to our country—not least to bring attention to our products. The whole country was engaged in finding the most Norwegian in all areas. The national consultant for small animal production, Jon Sæland, saw the importance of protecting our authentic Norwegian sheep breed as a part of our Norwegian-ness. 

Rulebreakers lead to new use of our old sheep 

Jon Sæland worked in cooperation with agronomist and wool expert Signe Brueneck, the Agriculture Department’s wool breeding committee, the Norwegian Sheep and Goat Association [Norsk Sau og Geit], the Norwegian Handcraft Association’s Wool Committee, and the National Women’s Arts and Design School. They eventually reconstructed the oldest yarn varieties for new tapestries. Else Haling was naturally a participant. She had run her own weaving school in Oslo since 1936 and was the chief instructor in tapestry at the National Women’s Arts and Design School from 1941 to 1963. 

Working out dyeing and spinning puzzles

Else Halling studied not only the techniques and yarn used in the Baldishol Tapestry, but also the strong colors that were so unlike Gerhard Munthe’s matte and grayed colors, typical in his time. Else Halling was first and foremost concerned with tapestry as handcraft. She felt that no other tapestry qualities were more accomplished than those found in the old Norwegian tapestries from the period 1550-1800—not in materials, composition, or technique. She had a desire to hold fast to this traditional legacy. If the skeins of yarn were the “golden egg,” then the wool itself was the key. This led to a treasure hunt together with Sunniva Lønning. Together they tried to work out the secrets behind the old dyeing methods and the luster in the historical wool yarn. 

Investigations during the difficult war years 

Else Halling and Sunniva Lønning discovered it was the guard hair that had both the luster and strength and which was the origin of the yarn’s high quality. While Else Halling was an instructor at the National Women’s Arts and Design School, she was given a workshop in the Norwegian Arts and Crafts Museum. The director, Thor B. Kielland, dreamed of producing large tapestries that were designed by noted Norwegian artists and would adorn public buildings in Norway. He needed weavers to make samples and he asked Else Halling. 

After a number of smaller tests  to emulate the qualities of the old tapestries, Else Halling decided to create a true copy of a tapestry in full size. This was at the beginning of the Second World War. Most of the old tapestries had been evacuated from the museum, other than The Feast of Herod [Herodes’ Gjestebud]. Assisted by Randi Ruud, they studied it thread by thread. 

Else Halling related that it was a pleasure to be in such close contact with an original tapestry, to hold it in her hands, feel it, and have permission to carefully examine the back side and begin to understand its fading—in addition to be really being able to study the threads’ paths within the tapestry, the structure and types of yarn. 

Else Halling said, “People hungered for anything of quality and beauty during the war years. Museums were closed, there were no beautiful things in shop windows, all lovely colors were extinguished, the world was brown and gray, nothing more than surrogates whatever way people turned…”

Together with Dagmar Lunde they experimented with dyeing methods that would remain colorfast. Guard hair yarn from the spelsau showed more strength of color than yarn from any other wool types. It was a matter of finding the correct type and degree of twist to make the yarn as lustrous as possible. 

“Mor Trampe” wrote in the weekly publication Urd, March 1948 

“It is exactly this long guard hair that is discovered to be the same material that our ancestors used in many beautiful tapestries we have from the 1600s to 1700s. … Our ancestors knew their materials and used them well.” 

(The August issue of the Norwegian Textile Letter will include a translation of the next chapter of Annemor’s book, covering the importance of yarn from spelsau sheep in tapestry in the post-WWII period up to current times.)

Annemor Sundbø is a Norwegian author, knitter, weaver, historian, and curator. Perhaps her best title is also the title of an extensive profile of her on The Craftsmanship Initiative, “Norwegian Sweater Detective.” Her most recent book, Koftearven, which examines the development of the Norwegian sweater tradition as a national treasure, won the 2020 Sørland Literature Prize. annemor.com

Read more by Annemor Sundbø in earlier issues of the Norwegian Textile Letter: Nettles – For Clothing and Much More (November 2017), and A Rag Pile, My Lot in Life (May 2016).

Translated by Robbie LaFleur